Exploring the Relationships among Interaction, Presence, and Engagement in Online Learning: A PLS-SEM Study

Abstract

Interaction, presence, and engagement are the three critical factors proposed to explain learning in online environments. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to further exploration of the relationships between these factors. However, this research field has not yet reached the desired depth and saturation. These factors are theoretically grounded in the concepts of interaction, community of inquiry (CoI), and student engagement (SE) frameworks. This study examined the relationships among interaction, CoI, and SE frameworks in online learning. Data from 1558 participants were analyzed using Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The results indicate that interaction exerts a significant positive effect on CoI. Furthermore, interaction was found to positively influence both cognitive and emotional engagement. Similarly, CoI showed a positive impact on cognitive and emotional engagement. The study identified the intricate relationships among these variables using PLS-SEM, providing valuable insights that can help educators and institutions improve their online learning experience. These findings serve as a foundation for enhancing instructional strategies and designing more effective online environments. The findings present valuable opportunities for educators and policymakers to implement practical strategies to improve SE, enhance interaction and cultivate a vibrant CoI within online learning environments. © 2026 The Author(s).